Leviathan
by Thomas Hobbes
(Penguin, 2017)
From one point of view, Hobbes looks like a modern liberal, with his emphases on self-interest, the plurality of judgements, the consent of the governed, representation, scepticism about the existence of a robust common good, politics organized around the search for a peaceful modus vivendi, perhaps even religious toleration, and a thoroughgoing methodological individualism. And from another point of view, he just doesn’t, with his sharp opposition to the kind of constitutionalism that seeks to divide or limit political power, his subordination of the rights of private property to the requirements of politics.
Page ix.
Leviathan remains a permanent fixture on academic syllabi in political philosophy and the history of political thought.
Page x.
In 1608, having completed his B.A., Hobbes entered the employment of the aristocratic Cavendish family, with whom he would be associated for the rest of his life, working at various times as a tutor, secretary, agent - or being left alone to get on with his studies.
Page xi.
Hobbes became increasingly preoccupied with scientific topics in the 1630s, and he paid close attention to the work of French contemporaries as the decade wore on.
Page xii.
Fighting between the forces of the King and the Parliament began in 1642, and as the tide of the war turned against the Royalists, Paris became increasingly populated with exiles, including the sixteen-year-old Prince of Wales, who arrived in 1646, and to whom Hobbes was engaged to teach mathematics.
Page xiv.
We don’t know exactly when Leviathan was written, and there is also disagreement over why it was written.
Page xv.
Leviathan is best known to this day for its account in the thirteenth chapter of what has come to be called the ‘state of nature.’
Page xv.
The nightmare of the state of nature is a condition into which Hobbes thinks it possible to fall, should political institutions fail.
Page xvi.
Hobbes also asserts that the state of nature is a state of war - not that it has a tendency to become one, but that that’s what it is.
Page xvi.
The ‘right of Nature’ … is the idea that we have a right to do what we judge to be necessary for our self-preservation.
Page xvii.
The ‘Fundamentall’ law of nature is ‘to seek Peace, and follow it.’
Page xvii.
According to Hobbes, human beings are instead restless machines striving for ‘Power after power’ whose desires ‘ceaseth only in Death.’
Page xviii.
The laws of nature, Hobbes goes on to explain, aren’t really laws, strictly speaking, because there aren’t any sanctions for breaking them.
Page xix.
The aim is to get ourselves in a situation in which principles like the laws of nature might reliably govern our behaviour, so we can live peacefully with our fellows. For that to happen, we need to live under laws that carry a sanction if we disobey then.
Page xix.
Hobbes’s idea … is that a group of individuals in the state of nature might covenant together, one with another, to submit to the authority of a third party. In particular it’s that third party - who is called the Sovereign - who makes the necessary judgements about what threats are posed to the people whom we an now all the subjects.
Page xx.
In agreeing to submit to authority, we take ourselves out of the state of nature, making possible a life of peace and prosperity.
Page xx.
The relationship that the subjects have to the Sovereign is one of submission, rather than any reciprocal or contractual obligation.
Page xxi.
Although modern politics is by no means fully Hobbesian, we nevertheless use a similar language of representation - ours is a ‘representative democracy,’ we say - and it is interesting to consider our own institutions in the light of Hobbes’s argument.
Page xxii.
The authority of the Sovereign, on Hobbes’s account, is far-reaching, since the Sovereign - if it chooses to be - is the judge of anything that might fall into dispute.
Page xxii.
Sovereign authority … must be concentrated at a single point, for ‘a Kingdome divided in it selfe’ through some kind of constitutional division of sovereignty ‘cannot stand’ any ambiguity about where political authority ultimately resides risks a slide down a slippery slope into civil war and a return to the state of nature.
Page xxii.
In a significant respect it is Hobbes who stands at the head of a long lien of writers - Rousseau and Hegel, but also Bernard Mandeville and Immanuel Kant - in supplementing a crude model of self-seeking individualism with an awareness of just how powerful it our desire to have standing in the eyes of others, and the strikingly reflexive psychology of the constant self-policing of our actions with an eye on the responses of others to which this gives rise.
Page xxvi.
One of the classic objections to Hobbes’s argument takes aim at the importance he ascribed to glory.
Page xxvi.
Many people dislike Hobbes’s theory because of he the centrality it ascribes to fear.
Page xxviii.
The Hobbesian thought is that promises are always made for fear of the consequences of not making them.
Page xxviii.
Romance is a problem for Hobbes, for it inflames the imagination; so too is the popular seventeenth-century habit of reading romantic literature.
Page xxix.
Hobbes thought that what was taught at Oxford and Cambridge was one of the causes of the English Civil War.
Page xxxi.
His polemic was particularly directed against the churches. Like other corporate bodies in England, Hobbes believed that the Church had had too much power for a very long time.
Page xxxi.
Discussion of the problems of Scripture and religion filled the second half of Leviathan, and, for Hobbes, the only solution to these various dilemmas was - as usual - to concentrate authority in the Sovereign.
Page xxxii.
Hobbes clearly argued that the Sovereign was entitled to enforce uniformity of religious observance, and to have a state church whose dogmas - beyond the bare claim that Jesus is the Christ - were ultimately to be determined by political authority.
Page xxxiii.
Hobbes was far more hostile towards ecclesiastical power than he was towards religion itself.
Page xxxiii.
The immediate political teaching of his book: the Parliamentarians have conquered, and the new regime in England is to be obeyed.
Page xxxiv.
The text of the new Penguin Leviathan is based on Macpherson’s edition.
Page xlii.
What is the Heart, but a Spring; and the Nerves, but so many Strings; and the Joynts, but so many Wheeles, giving motion to the whole Body?
Page 7.
There is no conception in a mans mind, which hath not at first, totally, or by parts, been begotten upon the organs of Sense.
Page 11.
Sense in all cases, is nothing els but originall fancy, caused (as I have said) by the pressure, that is, by the motion, of externall things upon our Eyes, Eares, and other organs thereunto ordained.
Page 12.
Men measure, not only other men, but all other things, by themselves.
Page 13.
Much memory, or memory of many things, is called Experience. Againe, Imagination being only of those things which have been formerly perceived by Sense
Page 15.
Awake I know I dreame not; though when I dreame, I think my selfe awake.
Page 16.
Lying cold breedeth Dreams of Feare, and raiseth the thought and Image of some fearfull object (the motion from the brain to the inner parts, and from the inner parts to the Brain being reciprocall). And that as Anger causeth heat in some parts of the Body, when we are awake; so when we sleep, the over heating of the same parts causeth anger, and the raiseth up in the brain the Imagination of an Enemy.
Page 16.
Our Dreams are the reverse of our waking Imaginations
Page 17.
From this ignorance of how to distinguish Dreams, and other strong Fancies, from Vision and Sense, did arise thee greatest part of the Religion of the Gentiles in tine past, that worshipped Satryres, Fawnes, Nymph, and the like; and now adayes the opinion that rude people have of Fayries, Ghosts, and Goblins; and of the power of Witches.
Page 18.
Evill men under pretext that God can do any thing, are so bold as to say any thing when it serves their turn, though they think it untrue.
Page 18.
When a man thinketh on any thing whatsoever, His next Thought after, is not altogether so casuall as it seems to be.
Page 19.
It comes to passe in time, that in the Imagining of any thing, there is no certainty what we shall Imagine next; Onely this is certain, it shall be something that succeeded the same before, at one time or another.
Page 20.
In all your actions, look often upon what you would have, as the thing that directs all your thoughts in the way to attain it.
Page 21.The
Present only has a being in Nature; things Past have a being in the Memory onely, but thins to come have no vein at all; the Future being but a fiction of the mind, applying the sequels of actions Past, to the actions that are Present.
Page 22.
The best Prophet naturally is the best guesser; and the best guesser, he that is most versed and studied in the matters he guesses at: for he hath most Signes to guesse by.
Pages 22-23.
It is not Prudence that distinguisheth man from beast. There be beasts, that at a year old observe more, and pursue that which is for their good, more prudently, than a child can do at ten.
Page 23.
Whatsoever we imagine, is Finite. Therefore there is no Idea, or conception of anything we call Infinite. No man can have in his mind an Image of infinite magnitude; nor conceive infinite swiftness, infinite time, or infinite force, or infinite power. When we say any thing is infinite, we signifie onely, that we are not able to conceive the ends, and bounds of the thing named; having no Conception of the thing, but of our own inability. And therefore the Name of God is used, not to make us conceive him; (for he is Incomprehensible; and his greatness, and power are unconceivable;) but that we may honour him.
Page 24.
A man can have ho thought, representing any thing, not subject to sense.
Page 24.
The mot noble and profitable invention of all other, was that of SPEECH.
Page 25.
The generall use of Speech, is to transferre our Mentall Discourse, into Verbal; or the Trayne of our Thoughts, into a Trayne of Words.
Page 26.
To grieve an enemy, it is but an abuse of Speech.
Page 27.
Seeing then that truth consisteth in the right ordering of names in our affirmations, a man that seeketh precise truth, had need to remember what every name he uses stands for; and to place it accordingly; or else he will find himself entangled in words.
Page 29.
In the right Definition of Names, lyes the first use of Speech.
Page 30.
Between true Science, and erroneous Doctrines, Ignorance is in the middle.
Page 30.
When a man upon the hearing of any Speech, hath those thoughts which the words of that Speech, and their connexion, were ordained and constituted to signifie; Then he is said to understand it: Understanding being nothing else, but conception caused by Speech.
Pages 32-33.
In what matter soever there is place for addition and substration, there also is place for Reason; and where these have no place, there Reason has nothing at all to do.
Page 34.
Reason … is nothing but Reckoning (that is, Adding and substracting) of the Consequences of generall names agreed upon, for the marking and signifying of our thoughts.
Page 35.
There can be no certainty of the last Conclusion, without a certainty of all those Affirmations and Negations, on which it was grounded and inferred.
Page 36.
The privilege of Absurdity; to which no living creature is subject, but man onely.
Page 37.
All men by nature reason alike, and well, when they have good principles.
Page 38.
Sense and Memory are but knowledge of Fact, which is a thing pat, and irrevocable; Science is the knowledge of Consequences, and dependance of one fact upon another.
Page 39.
Children therefore are not endued with Reason at all, till they have attained the use of Speech: but are called Reasonable Creatures, for the possibility apparent of having the use of Reason in time to come.
Page 39.
They that have no Science, are in better, and nobler condition with their natural Prudence; than men, that by is-reasoning, or by trusting them that reason wrong, fall upon false and absurd generall rules.
Pages 39-40.
They that trusting onely to the authority of books, follow the blind blindly, are like him that trusting to the false rules of the master of Fence, ventures praesumptuously upon an adversary, that either kills, or disgraces him.
Page 40.
That which men Desire, they are also sayd to Love: and to Hate those things, for which they have Aversion. So that Desire, and Love, are the same thing; save that by Desire, we always signifie the Absence of the Object; by Love, most commonly the Presence of the same. So also by Aversion, we signifie the Absence; and by Hate, the Presence of the Object.
Pages 42-43.
Because the constitution of a mans Body is, in I continuall mutation; it is impossible that all the same things should always cause in him the same Appetities, and Aversions: much lesse can all men consent, in the Desire of almost any one and the same Object.
Page 43.
These words of Good, Evill and the Contemptible, are ever used with relation to the person that useth them: There being nothing simply and absolutely so; nor any common Rule of Good and Evill, to be taken from the nature of the objects themselves; but form the Person of the man.
Page 43.
Desire, to know why, and how, Curiosity; such as is in no living creature by Man: so that Man is distinguished, not onely by his Reason; but also by this singular Passion from other Animals.
Page 46.
He who hath by Experience, or Reason, the greatest and surest prospect of Consequences, Deliberates best himself; and is able when he will, to gibe the best counsell unto others.
Page 51.
No Discourse whatsoever, can End in absolute knowledge of Fact, past, or to come. … No man can know by Discourse, that this, or that, is, has been, or will be; which is to know absolutely: but onely, that if This be, That is; if This has been, That has been; if This shall be, That shall be: which is to know conditionally.
Page 53.
In Beleefe are two opinions; one of the saying of the man; the other of his virtue. … But to beleefe what is said, signifieth onely an opinion of the truth of the saying.
Page 54.
When wee Believe that the Scriptures are the word of God, having no immediate revelation from God himself, our Beleefe, Faith, and Trust is in the Church; whose word we take.
Page 55.
Whatsoever we believe, upon no other reason, then what is drawn from authority of men onely, and their writings; whether they be sent from God or not, is Faith in men onely.
Page 55.
If all things were equally in all men, nothing would be prized.
Page 56.
Without Steddinesse, and direction to some End, a great Fancy is one kind of Madnesse.
Page 57.
To govern well a family, and a kingdome, are not different degrees of Prudence; but different sorts of businesse.
Page 59.
For the variety of behaviour in men that have drunk too much, is the same with that of Mad-men.
Pages 62-63.
Passions unguided, are for the most part mere Madnesse.
Page 63.
The Scripture was written to shew unto men the kingdome of God, and to prepare their minds to become his obedient subjects.
Page 66.
The Greatest of humane Powers, is that which is compounded of the Powers of most men, united by consent in one person.
Page 70.
Science is of that nature, as none can understand it to be, but such as in a good measure have attayned it.
Page 71.
Let a man (as most men do,) rate themselves at the highest Value they can; yet their true Value is no more than it is esteemed by others.
Page 72.
Riches, are Honourable; for they are Power. Poverty, Dishonourable.
Page 74.
Employment is a signe of Power.
Page 75.
Obscurity, is Dishonourable.
Page 75.
Covetousness of great Riches, and ambition of great Honours, are Honourable; as signes of power to obtain them.
Page 75.
The object of mans desire, is not to enjoy once onely, and for one instant of time; but to assure forever, the way of his future desire.
Pages 79-80.
I put for a generall inclination of all mankind, a perpetuall and restlesse desire of Power after power, that ceaseth only in Death.
Page 80.
Any thing that is pleasure in the sense, the same also is pleasure in the imagination.
Page 81.
All men … of they rely not on their own, must rely on the opinion of some other, whom they think wiser than themselves.
Page 83.
Haeresie signifies no more than private opinion.
Page 84.
Ignorance of remote causes, disposeth men to attribute all events, to the causes immediate, and Instrumentall: For these are all the causes they perceive.
Page 85.
Ignorance of natural causes disposeth a man to credulity, so as to believe many times impossibilities.
Page 85.
There is no cause to doubt, but that the seed of Religion, is also onely in Man; and consisteth in some peculiar quality, or at least in some eminent degree thereof, not to be found in other Living creatures.
Page 87.
In these four things, Opinion of Ghosts, Ignorance of second causes, Devotion towards what men fear, and Taking of things Casuall for Prognostiques, consisteth of the Naturall seed of Religion; which by reason of the different Fancies, Judgments, and Passions of several men, hath grown up into ceremonies so different, that those which are used by one man, are for the most part ridiculous to another.
Pages 90-91.
Where God himself, by supernaturall revelation, planted Religion; there he also made to himself a peculiar Kingdome; and gave Lawes, not only of behaviour towards himself; but also towards one another; and thereby in the Kingdome of God, the Policy, and lawes Civill, are a part of Religion ; and therefore the distinction of Temporall, and Spirituall Domination, hath there no place.
Page 96.
As in natural things, men of judgement require natural signes, and arguments; so in supernaturall things, they require signes supernaturall.
Page 98.
Men have no pleasure, (but on the contrary a great deale of griefe) in keeping company, where there is no power able to over-awe them all.
Page 102.
Whatever, therefore is consequent to a time of Warre, where every man is Enemy to every man; the same is consequent to the time, wherein men lie without other security, than what their own strength, and their own invention shall furnish them withal. In such condition, there is no place for Industry; because the fruit thereof is uncertain: and consequently no Culture of the Earth; no Navigation, nor use of the commodities that may be imported by Sea; no commodious Building; no Instruments of moving, and removing such tings as require much force; no Knowledge of the face of the Earth; no account of Time; no Arts; no Letters; no Society; and which is worst of all, continuall feare, and danger of violent death; And the life of man, solitary, poore, nasty, brutish, and short.
Page 103.
The savage people in many places of America, except the government of small Families, the concord whereof dependeth on natural lust, have no government at all; and live at this day in that brutish manner, as I said before.
Page 104.
The Passions that encline men to Peace, are Feare of Death.
Page 105.
By Liberty, is understood, according to the proper signification of the word, the absence of externall Impediments: which Impediments, may oft take away part of a mans power to do what hee would; but cannot hinder him from using the power left him, according as his judgement, and reason shall dictate to him.
Page 105.
The condition of Man … is a condition of Warre of every one against every one; in which case every one is governed by his own Reason.
Page 106.
The Laws of Nature
1. It is a precept, or generall rule of Reason, that every man, ought to endeavour Peace, as farre as he has hope of obtaining it; and when he cannot obtain it, that he may seek, and use, all helps, and advantages of Warre.
Page 106.
2. From this Fundamentall Law of Nature, by which men are commanded to endevour Peace, is derived this second Law; That a man be willing, when others are so too, as farre-forth, as for Peace and defence of himself he shall think it necessary, to lay down this right to all things; and be contented with so much liberty against other men, as he would allow other men against himself. For as long as every man holdeth this Right, of doing any thing he liketh; so long are all men in the condition of Warre.
Pages 106-107.
3. Men perform their Covenants made: without which, covenants are in vain, and but Empty words; and the Right of all men to all things remaining, wee are still in the condition of Warre.
Page 117.
4. The fourth Law of Nature; which may be conceived in this Forme, That a man which receiveth Benefit from another of meer Grace, Endeavour that he which givieth it, have no reasonable cause to repent him of his good will.
Page 123.
5. A fifth Law of Nature, is Compleasance; that is to say, That every man strive to accommodate himself to the rest.
Page 124.
6. A sixth Law of Nature, is this, That upon caution of the Future time, a man ought to pardon the offences past of them that repenting, desire it.
Page 124.
7. A seventh is, That in Revenges, (that is, ret5ibution of Evil for Evil,) Men look not at the greatnesse of the evill past, but the greatnesse of the good to follow.
Page 125.
8. We may in the eighth place, for a Law of Nature, set down this Precept, That no man by deed, word, countenance, or gesture, declare Hatred, or contempt of another.
Page 125.
9. The ninth law of Nature, I put this, That every man acknowledge other for his Equall by Nature. The breach of this Precept is Pride.
Page 126.
10. At the entrance into conditions of Peace, no man require to reserve to himself any Right, which he is not content should be reserved to every one of the rest.
Page 126.
11. If a man be trusted to judge between man and man, it is a precept of the Law of Nature, that he deale Equally between them.
Page 126.
12. Such things as cannot be divided, be enjoyed in Common, if it can be; and if the quantity of the thing permit, without stint; otherwise Proportionably to the number of them that have Right.
Page 127.
13. The Entire Right; or else, (making the use alternate,) the First Possession, be determined by Lot. For equall distribution, is of the Law of Nature; and other means of equall distribution cannot be imagined.
Page 127.
14. Those things which cannot be enjoyed in common, nor divided, ought to be adjudged to the First Possessor; and in some cases to the First-Borne, as acquired by Lot.
Page 127.
15. All men that mediate Peace, be allowed safe Conduct.
Page 127.
16. They that are at controversie, submit their Right to the judgement of an Arbitrator. Page 128.
17. Seeing every man is presumed to do all things in order to his own benefit, no man is a fit Arbitrator in his own cause.
Page 128.
18. No man in any Cause ought to be received for Arbitrator, to whom greater profit, or honour, or pleasure apparently ariseth out of the victory of one party, than of the other.
Page 128.
19. In a controversie of Fact, the Judge being to give no more credit to one, than to the other … must give credit to a third; or to a third and fourth; or more.
Page 128.
A mutuall transferring of Right, is that which men call Contract.
Page 109.
A Covenant not to defend my self from fore, by force, is always voyd. For (as I have shewed before) no man can transferre, or lay down his Right to save himself from Death.
Page 114.
A just man therefore, is he that taketh all he care he can, that his Actions may be all Just: and an Unjust man, is he that neglecteth it.
Page 121.
The Lawes of Nature are Immutable and eternally; For Injustice, Ingratitude, Arrogance, Pride, Iniquity, Acception of persons, and the rest, can never be made lawfull.
Page 129.
A Person, is he, whose words or actions are considered, either as his own, or as representing the words of actions of an other man.
Page 131.
The Lawes of Nature (as Justice, Equity, Modesty, Mercy, and I in summer) doing to others, as wee would be done to,) of themselves, without the terrour of some Power, to cause them to be observed, are contrary to our natural Passions, that carry us to Partiality, Pride, Revenge and the like.
Page 136.
The only way to erect such a Common Power, as may be able to defend them from the invasion of Forraigners, and the injuries of one another, and thereby to secure them in such sort, as that by their owne industrie, and by the fruites of the Earth, they may nourish themselves and live contentedly; is, to conferre all their power and strength upon one Man, or upon one Assembly f men, that may reduce all their Wills, by plurality of voices, unto one ill: which is as much as to say, to appoint one man, or Assembly of men, to beare their Person.
Pages 139-140.
The Multitude so united in one Person, is called a Common-Wealth, in latine Civitas. This is the Generation of that great Leviathan, or rather (to speak more reverently) of that Mortall God, to which wee owe under the Immortal God, our peace and defence.
Page 140.
He that carryeth this Person, is called Soveraigne, and said to have Soveraigne Power; and every one besides, his Subjects.
Page 140.
The Actions of men proceed from their Opinions; and in the wel governing of Opinions, consisteth the well governing of mens Actions, in order to their Peace, and Concord.
Page 145.
It belongeth … to him that hath the Soveraign Power, to be Judge, or constitute all Judges of Opinions and Doctrines, as a thing necessary to Peace, thereby to prevent Discord and Civill Warre.
Page 146.
As the Power, so also the Honour of the Sovereign, ought to be greater, than that of any, or all the Subjects.
Page 149.
There can be but Three kinds of Common-wealth. … When the Representative is One man, then is the Common-wealth a Monarchy: when an Assembly of All that will come together, then it is a Democracy, or Popular Common-wealth: when an Assembly of a Part onely, then it is called an Aristocracy.
Page 151.
They that are discontented under Monarchy, call it Tyranny; and they that are displeased with Aristocracy, called it Oligarchy: So also, they which find themselves grieved under a Democracy, call it Anarchy.
Page 151.
The passions of men, are commonly ore potent than their Reason.
Page 153.
Understanding is by the flame of the Passions never enlightened.
Page 154.
To accuse, requires lesse Eloquence (such is mans Nature) than to excuse; and condemnation, than absolution more resembles Justice.
Pages 154-155.
None have right to give that which they have not right to possesse, and keep to themselves, if they think good.
Page 157.
Men are presumed to be more enclined by nature, to advance their own children, than the children of other men; and of their own, rather a Male than a Female; because men, are naturally fitter than women, for actions of labour and danger.
Page 161.
Men who choose their Soveraign, do it for ear of one another, and not of him whom they Institute.
Page 162.
Preservation of life being the end, for which one man becomes subject to another, every man is supposed to promise obedience, to him, in whose power it is to sae, or destroy him.
Page 164.
The condition of man in this life shall never be without inconveniences; but there happeneth in no Common-wealth any great Inconvenience, but what proceeds from the Subjects disobedience, and breach of those Covenants, from which the Common-wealth hath its being.
Page 170.
A Free-Man, is he, that in those things, which by his strength and wit he is able to do, is not hindered to doe what he has a will to.
Page 171.
Amongst masterlesse men, there is perpetuall war, of every man against his neighbour; no inheritance, to transmit to the Son, nor to expect form the Father; no propriety of Gods, or Lands; no security; but a full and absolute Libertie in every Particular man: So in States, and Common-wealths not dependent on one another, every Common-wealth, (not every man) has an absolute Libertie, to doe what it shall judge (that is to say, what that Man, or Assemblie that representeth it, shall judge) most conducing to their benefit.
Page 175.
It is an easy thing, for men to be deceived, by the specious name of Libertie; and for want of Judgement to distinguish, mistake that for their Private Inheritance, and Birth right, which is the right of the Publique only.
Page 176.
There was never any thing so deerly bought, as these Western parts bought the learning of the Greek and Latine tongues.
Page 177.
All men equally, are by Nature Free.
Page 177.
Soveraignty by Institution, is by Covenant of every one to every one; and Soveraignty by Acquisition, by Covenants of the Vanquished to the Victor, or Child to the Parent.
Page 177.
If the Soveraign command a man (though justly condemned,) to kill, wound, or mayme himself; or not to resist those that assault him; or to abstain from the use of food, ayre, medicine, or any other thing, without which he cannot lie; yet hath that man the Liberty to disobey.
Page 178.
The Obligation a man may sometimes have, upon the Command of the Soveraign to execute any dangerous, or dishonourable Office, dependeth not on the Words of our Submission; but on the Intention; which is to be understood by the End thereof.
Page 178.
When the Defence of the Common-wealth, requireth at once the help of all that are able to bear Arms, every one is obliged; because otherwise the Institution of the Common-wealth, which they have not the purpose, or courage to preserve, was in vain.
Page 179.
The Obligation of Subjects to the Soveraign, is understood to last as long, and no longer, than the power lasteth, by which he is able to protect them. For the right men have by Nature to protect themselves when none else an protect them, can by no Covenant be relinquished.
Page 181.
The end of Obedience is Protection.
Page 181.
The Act of the Soveraign every one is Author, because he is the Representative unlimited.
Pages 184-185.
All uniting of strength by private men, is, if for evill intent, unjust.
Page 193.
Sometimes … Justice cannot be had without mony; and every man may think his own cause just, till if he heard, and judged.
Page 194.
A Publique Minister, is he, that by the Soveraign … is employed in any affaires, with Authority to represent in that employment, the Person of the Common-wealth.
Page 196.
The Monarch, or Soveraign Assembly only hath immediate Authority form God, to tech and instruct the people; and no man but the Soveraign, receiveth his power Dei gratia simply; that is to say, from the favour of none but God: All other, receive theirs from the favour and providence of God, and their Soveraigns.
Page 198.
No man can be Judge in his own cause.
Page 198.
Gold and Silver, being (as it happens) almost in all Countries of the world highly valued, is a commodious measure of the value of all things else between Nations; and Mony (of what matter soever coyned by the Soveraign of a Common-wealth,) is a sufficient measure of the value of all things else.
Page 206.
The Procreation, or Children of a Common-wealth, are those we call Plantations, or Colonies; which are numbers of men sent out form the Common-wealth, under a Conductor, or Governour, to inhabit a Forraign Country, either formerly voyd of Inhabitants, or made voyd then, by warre.
Page 207.
The proper object of every mans Will, is some Good to himself.
Page 208.
A man may be obliged to do what he is Commanded; as when he hath covenanted to obey: But he cannot be obliged to do as he is Counselled, because the hurt of not following it, is his own.
Page 209.
To ask Counsell of another, is to permit him to give such Counsell as he shall think best.
Page 209.
Ignorance of the Law, is no good excuse, here every man is bound to take notice of the Lawes to which he is subject.
Page 210.
Conditions of a Good Counsellor
1) We may set down for the first condition of a good Counsellour, That his Ends, and Interest, be not inconsistent with the Ends and Interest of him he Counselleth.
Page 212.
2) When an action comes into deliberation, is to make manifest the consequences of it, in such manner, as he that is Counselled may be truly and evidently informed; he ought to propound his advise, in such form of speech, as may make the truth more evidently appear; that is to say, with as firm ratiocination, as significant and proper language, and as briefly, as the evidence will permit.
Page 212.
3) No man is presumed to be a good Counsellour, but in such Businesse, as he hath not onely been much versed in, but hath also much meditated on, and considered. … The businesse of a Common-wealth is this, to preserve the people in Peace at home, and defend them against forraign Invasion.
Page 213.
4) It is necessary to be acquainted with the Intelligences, and Letters that come from thence, and with all the records of Treaties, and other transactions of State between them.
Page 214.
5) Supposing the number of Counsellors equall, a man is getter Counselled by hearing them apart, then in an Assembly.
Page 214.
No great Popular Common-wealth was ever kept up; but either by a forraign enemy that united them; or by the reputation of some one eminent Man amongst them; or by the secret Counsell of a few; or by the mutuall feare of equall factions; and not by the open Consultations of the Assembly.
Page 216.
The Soveraign of a Common-wealth, be it an Assembly, or one Man, is not Subject to the Civill Lawes. For having power to make, and repeale Lawes, he may when he pleaseth, free himself from that subjection, by repealing those Lawes that trouble him.
Page 218.
Judgement of what is reasonable, and of what is to be abolished, belongeth to him that maketh the Law, which is the Soveraign Assembly, or Monarch.
Page 218.
The Law of Nature therefore is a part of the Civill Law in all Common-wealths of the world. Reciprocally also, the Civill Law is a part of the Dictates of Nature. For Justice, that is to say, Performance of Covenant, and giving to every man his own, is a Dictate of the Law of Nature.
Page 219.
Civill, and Naturall Law are not different kinds, but different parts of Law.
Page 219.
Law was brought into the world for nothing else, but to limit the natural liberty of particular men, in such manner, as they might not hurt, but assist one another, and joyn together against a common Enemy.
Page 219.
Over natural fooles, children, or mad-men there is no Law, no more than over brute beasts; nor are they capable of the title of just, or unjust; because they had never power to make any covenant, or to understand the consequences thereof.
Page 222.
All Laws, written, and unwritten, have need of Interpretation.
Page 226.
The written Laws, if they be short, are easily mis-interpreted, from the divers significations of a word, or two; if long, they be more obscure by the diverse significations of many words.
Page 226.
The things that make a good Judge, or good Interpreter of the Lawes, are, first, A right understanding of that Principall Law of Nature called Equity. … Secondly, Contempt of unnecessary riches, and Preferments. Thirdly, To be able in judgement to devest himself of all feare, anger, hatred, love, and compassion. Fourthly, and lastly, Patience to heare; diligent attention in hearing; and memory to retain, digest and apply what he hat heard.
Page 232.
Naturall are those which have been Lawes from all Eternity; and are called not onley Naturall, but also Morall Lawes.
Page 233.
Though every one ought to be informed of the Punishments ordained beforehand for their transgression; neverthelesse the Command is not addressed to the Delinquent, (who cannot be supposed will faithfully punish himself,) but to publique Ministers appointed to see the Penalty executed.
Page 234.
Naturall Lawes being Eternall, and Universall, are all Divine.
Page 234.
Miracles are Marvellous works: but that which is marvellous to one, may not be so to another.
Page 235.
No man can infallibly know by naturall reason, that another has had a supernaturall revelation of Gods will; but only a beliefe.
Page 235.
If men were at liberty, to take for Gods Commandments, their own dreams, and facies, or the dreams and fancies of private men; scarce two men would agree upon what is Gods Commandment.
Page 236.
In whatsoever is not regulated by the Common-wealth, tis Equity (which is the Law of Nature and therefore an eternall Law of God) that every man equally enjoy his liberty.
Page 237.
Nature gave a Right to every man to secure himself by his own strength, and to invade a suspected neighbour, by way of prevention.
Pages 237-238.
The purpose to break the Law, is some degree of Contempt of him, wo whom it belongeth to see it executed.
Page 238.
A Crime, is a sinne, consisting in the Committing (by Deed, or Word) of that which the Law forbiddeth, or the Omission of what it hath commanded.
Page 239.
When the Soveraign Power ceaseth, Crime also ceaseth: for where there is no such Power, there is no protection to be had from the Law; and therefore every one may protect himself by his own power; for no man in the Institution of sovereign Power can be supposed to give away the Right of preserving his own body; for the safety whereof all Soveraignty was ordained.
Page 240.
The source of every Crime, is some defect of the Understanding; or some errour in Reasoning; or some sudden force of the Passions.
Page 240.
Ignorance of the Law of Nature Excuseth no man; because every man that hath attained to the use of Reason, is supposed to know, he ought not to do to another, what he would not have done to himselfe.
Page 240.
Ignorance of the Penalty, where the Law is declared, Excuseth no man.
Page 241.
No Law, made after a Fact done, can make it a Crime.
Page 242.
Of the Passions that most frequently are the causes of Crime, one, is Vain-glory, or a foolish over-rating of their own worth.
Page 243.
Therefore it happeneth commonly, that such as value themselves by the greatnesse of their wealth, adventure on Crimes, upon hope of escaping punishment, by corrupting publique Justice, or obtaining Pardon by Mony, or other rewards.
Page 243.
The want of means to know the Law, totally excuseth: For the Law whereof a man has no means to enforme himself, is not obligatory.
Page 247.
Nor shall any man, that pretendeth to reason enough for the Government of his on affairs, be supposed to want means to know the Lawes of Nature; because they are known by the reason he pretends to: only children, and Madmen are Excused form offences against the Law Naturall
Page 247.
If a man by the terrour of present death, be compelled to doe a fact against the Law, he is totally Excused; because no Law can oblige a man to abandon his own preservation.
Page 247.
What cannot justly be condemned by the Soveraign, cannot justly be punished by any other.
Page 248.
The Degrees of Crime are taken on divers Scales, and measured, First, by the malignity of the Source, or Cause: Secondly, by the contagion of the Example: Thirdly, by the mischief of the Effect; and Fourthly, by the concurrence of times, Places, and Persons.
Page 249.
He that groundeth his actions, on his private Judgement, ought according to the rectitude, or errour thereof, to stand, or fall.
Page 249.
A Crime arising from a sudden Passion, is not so great, as when the same ariseth form long meditation.
Page 250.
Where the Law is publiquely, and with assiduity, before all the people read, and interpreted; a fact done against it, is a greater Crime, than where men are left without such instruction, to enquire of it with difficulty.
Page 250.
Generally all Crimes are the greater by the scandal they give; that is to say, by becoming stumbling-blocks to the weak, that look not so much upon the way they go in, as upon the light that other men carry before them.
Page 252.
To robbe the publique, is to robbe many at once.
Page 252.
A Punishment, is an Evill inflicted by publique Authority, on him that hath done, or omitted that which is Judged by the same Authority to be a Transgression of the Law; to the end that the will of men may thereby the better be disposed to obedience.
Page 254.
In the making of a Common-wealth, every man giveth away the right of defending another; but not of defending himself. Also he obligeth himself, to assist him that hath the Soveraignty, in the Punishing of another; but of himself not.
Page 255.
Neither private revenges, nor injuries of private men, can properly be stiled Punishment; because they proceed not from publique Authority.
Page 255.
The fact for which a man is Punished, ought first to be Judged by Publique Authority, to be a transgression of the Law.
Page 256.
All evill which is inflicted without intention, or possibility of disposing the Delinquent, or (by his example) other men, to obey the Lawes, is not Punishment; but an act of hostility; because without such an end, no hurt done is contained under that name.
Page 256.
Harme inflicted for a Fact done before there was a Law that forbad it, is not Punishment, but an act of Hostility. … But Punishment supposeth a fact judged, to have been a transgression of the Law.
Page 257.
In declared Hostility, all infliction of evill is lawfull.
Page 257.
If upon the Infliction of a Punishment death follow not in the intention of the Inflicter, the Punishment is not to bee esteemed Capitall, though the harme prove mortall by an accident not to be foreseen; in which case death is not inflicted, but hastened.
Page 258.
The Law is the publique Conscience.
Page 266.
Faith, and Sanctity, are indeed not very frequent; but yet they are not Miracles, but brought to passe by education, discipline, correction, and other natural ways, by which God worketh them in his elect, at such time as he thinketh fit.
Page 267.
It is true, that Soveraigns are all subject to the Lawes of Naure; because such lawes be Divine, and cannot by any man, or Common-wealth be abrogated. But to those Lawes which the Soveraign himself, that is, which the Common-wealth maketh, he is not subject.
Page 267.
The constitution of mans nature, is of it selfe subject to desire novelty: When therefore they are provoked to the same, by the neighbourhood also of those that have been enriched by it, it is almost impossible for them, not to be content with those that solicite them to change; and love the first beginnings, though they be grieved with the continuance of disorder; like hot blouds, that having gotten the itch, tear themselves with their own nayles, till they can endure the smart no longer.
Pages 268-269.
The Soveraign, is the publique Soule, giving Life and Motion to the Common-wealth.
Page 275.
The Office of the Soveraign … consisteth in the end, for which he was trusted with the Soveraign Power, namely the procuration of the safety of the people; to which he is obliged by the Law of Nature.
Page 275.
If the essentiall Rights of Soveraignty … be taken away, the Common-wealth is thereby dissolved, and every man returneth into the condition, and calamity of a warre with every other man, (Which is the greatest evill that can happen in this life).
Page 276.
Time, and Industry, produce every day new knowledge.
Page 277.
The People are to be taught, First, that they ought not to be in love with any forme of Government they see in their neighbour Nations, more than with their own.
Pages 278-279.
The prosperity of a People ruled by an Aristocraticall, or Democraticall assembly, commeth not from Aristocracy, nor from Democracy, but from the Obedience, and Concord of the Subjects: nor do the people flourish in a Monarchy, because one man has the right to rule them, but because they obey him. Take away in any kind of State, the Obedience, (and consequently the Concord of the People,) and they shall not onely not flourish, but in short time be dissolved.
Page 279.
They are to be taught, that they ought not to be led with admiration of the vertue of and of their fellow Subjects, how high soever he stand, nor how conspicuously soever he shine in the Common-wealth.
Page 279.
They ought to be informed, how great a fault it is, to speak evill of the Soveraign Representatives, (whether One man, or an Assembly of men) or to argue and dispute his Power, or any way to use his Name irreverently, whereby he may be brought into Contempt with his People.
Page 280.
Every Soveraign Ought to cause Justice to be taught, which (consisting in taking form no man what is his) is as much as to say, to cause men to be taught not to deprive their Neighbours, by violence, or fraud, of any thing which by the Soveraign Authority is theirs.
Page 281.
The People are to be taught, to abstain from violence to one anothers person.
Page 281.
Any man that sees what I am doing may easily perceive what I think.
Page 283.
The safety of the People, requireth further, from him, or them that have the Soveraign Power, that Justice be equally administered to all degrees of People.
Page 283.
Every man may pardon what is done against himself, according to his own discretion. But an offence against a private man, cannot in Equity be pardoned, without the consent of him that is injured; or reasonable satisfaction.
Page 284.
The honour of great Persons, is to be valued for their beneficence, and the aydes they give to men of inferior rank.
Page 284.
A good Law is that, which is Needfull, for the Good of the People, and withal Perspicuous.
Page 286.
The use of Lawes, (which are but Rules Authorised) is not to bind the People from all voluntary actions; but to direct and keep them in such a motion, as not to hurt themselves by their own impetuous desires, rashnesse, or indiscretion.
Page 286.
The good of the Soveraign and People, cannot be separated.
Page 286.
Unnecessary Lawes are not good Lawes; but trapps for Mony.
Page 286.
All words, are subject to ambiguity; and therefore multiplication of words in the body of the Law, is multiplication of ambiguity.
Page 287.
The end of punishing is not revenge, and discharge of choler; but correction, either of the offender, or of others by his example; the severest Punishments are to be inflicted for those Crimes, that are of most Danger to the Publique; such as are those which proceed form malice to the Government established; those that spring from contempt of Justice; those that provoke Indignation int eh Multitude.
Page 287.
Lenity when there is such place for it, is required by the Law of Nature.
Page 288.
The most able Counsellours, are they that have least hope of benefit by giving evill Counsell, and most knowledge of those things that conduce to the Peace, and Defence of the Common-wealth.
Page 289.
Whether men will or not, they must be subject always to the Divine Power. By denying the Existence, or Providence of God, men may shake off their Ease, but not their Yoke.
Page 293.
They … that believe there is a God that governeth the world, and hat given Praecepts, and propounded Rewards, and Punishments to Mankind, are Gods Subjects; all the rest, are to be understood as Enemies.
Page 293.
God declareth his Lawes three ways; by the Dictates of Naturall Reason, by Revelation, and by the Voyce of some man, to whom by the operation of Miracles, he procureth credit with the rest.
Page 294.
By God, is understood the cause of the World; and to say the World is God, is to say there is no cause of it, that is, no God.
Page 299.
Being things that depend n natural causes, cannot be attributed to him.
Page 300.
Disputing of Gods nature is contrary to his Honour: For it is supposed, that in this natural Kingdome of God, there is no other way to know any thing, but by natural Reason; that is, from the Principles of natural Science; which are so farre from teaching us any thing of Gods nature, as they cannot reach us our own nature, nor the nature of the smallest creature living. And therefore, when men out of the Principles of naturall Reason, dispute of the Attributes of God, they but dishonour him.
Page 301.
Obedience to his Laws (that is, in this case to the Lawes of Nature.,) is the greatest worship of all. For as Obedience is ore acceptable to God than Sacrifice; so also to set light by his Commandments, is the greatest of all contumelies.
Page 302.
A Common-wealth is but one Person, it ought also to exhibite to God but one Worship.
Page 302.
Those Attributes which the Soveraign ordaineth, in the Worship of God, for signes of Honour, ought to be taken and used for such, by private men in their publique worship.
Page 303.
The Science of Naturall Justice, is the onely Science necessary for Soveraigns, and their principall Ministers.
Page 304.
The miracles that oblige us to believe a Prophet, ought to be confirmed by an immediate, or a not long deferr’d event. So that it is manifest, that the teaching of the Religion which God hath established, and the shewing of a present Miracle, joined together, were the only marks whereby the Scripture would have a true Prophet, that is to say, immediate Revelation to be acknowledged.
Pages 309-310.
Those Books only are Canonicall, that is, Law, in every nation, which are established for such by the Soveraign Authority.
Page 311.
It is manifest enough, that tew whole Scripture of the Old Testament, was set forth in the form we have it, after the return of the Jews from their Captivity in Babylon, and before the tine of Ptolemaeus Philadelphus, that caused it to bee translated into Greek by seventy men.
Page 317.
The Histories and the Prophecies of the old Testament, and the Gospels and Epistles of the New Testament, have had one and the same scope, to convert men to the obedience of God.
Page 319.
The Church, if it be one person, is the same thing with a Common-wealth of Christians; called a Common-wealth, because it consisteth of men united in one person, their Soveraign.
Page 321.
Whosoever hath a lawfull power over any Writing, to make it Law, hath the power also to approve, or disapprove the interpretation of the same.
Page 322.
We came to translate Spirits, by the word Ghosts, which signifieth nothing neither in heaven, nor earth. … But this I say, the word Spirit in the text signifieth no such thing; but either properly a reall substance, of Metaphorically, some extraordinary ability or affection of the Mind, or of the Body.
Page 327.
By the name of Angel, is signified generally, a Messenger; and most often, a Messenger of God: and by a Messenger of God, is signified, anything that makes known his extraordinary Presence; that is to say, the extraordinary manifestation of his power, especially by a Dream, or Vision.
Pages 328-329.
It is not the shape; but their use, that makes them Angels.
Page 331.
I find the Kingdome of god, to signifie in most places of Scripture, a Kingdome properly so named, constituted by the votes of the People of Israel in peculiar manner; wherein they chose God for their King by Covenant made with him, upon Gods promising them the possession of the land of Canaan; and but seldom metaphorically.
Page 336.
The King of any Countrey is the Publique Person, or representative of all his own Subjects.
Page 342.
A Sacrament, is a separation of some visible thing from common use; and a consecration of it to Gods service.
Page 343.
In the Old Testament, the sign of Admission was Circumcision; in the New Testament, Baptisme.
Page 343.
The Sacraments of Admission, are but once to be used, because there needs but one Admission; but because we have need of being often put in mind of our deliverance, and of our Alleageance, the Sacraments of Commemoration have need to be reiterated.
Page 343.
The Word of God, as it is taken for that which he hath spoken, is understood sometimes Properly, sometimes Metaphorically.
Page 346.
The Word of God, is then also to be taken for the Dictates of reason, and equity, when the same is said in the Scriptures to gee written in mans heart.
Page 348.
Prophecy is not an Art, nor (when it is taken for Praediction) a constant Vocation; but an extraordinary, and temporary Employment from God, most often of Good men, but sometimes also of the Wicked.
Page 350.
For Incoherent Speech, it was amongst the Gentiles taken for one sort of Prophecy, because the Prophets of their Oracles, intoxicated with a spirit, or vapour from the cave of the Pythian Oracle at Delphi, were for the time really mad, and spake like mad-men.
Page 350.
God disposeth men to Piety, Justice, Mercy, Truth, Faith, and all manner of Vertue, both Morall, and Intellectuall, by doctrine, example, and by several occasions, natural, and ordinary.
Pages 354-355.
There is no good inclination, that is not of the operation of God. But these operations are not always supernaturall.
Page 355.
By the Spirit is meant Inclination to Gods service; and not any supernaturall Revelation.
Page 356.
There is need of Reason and Judgment to discern between natural, and supernaturall Gifts, and between natural, and supernaturall Visions, or Dreams. And consequently men had need to be very circumspect, and wary, in obeying the voice of man, that pretending himself to be a Prophet.
Page 357.
God sometimes speaketh by Prophets, whose persons he hath not accepted.
Page 359.
When Christian men, take not their Christian Soveraign, for Gods Prophet; they must either take their owne Dreams, for the Prophecy; they mean to bee governed by , and the tumour of their own hearts for the Spirit of God; or they must suffer themselves to bee lead by some strange Prince; or by some of their fellow subjects, that can bewitch them, by slander of the government, into rebellion, without other miracle to confirm their calling.
Page 360.
Seeing Admiration and Wonder, is consequent to the knowledge and experience, wherewith men are endued, some more, some lesse; it followeth, that the same thing, may be a Miracle to one, and not to another. And thence it is, that ignorant, and superstitious men make great Wonders or those works, which other men, knowing to proceed form Nature.
Page 362.
Wee may further observe in Scripture, that the end of Miracles, was to beget beleef, not universally in all men, elect, and reprobate; but in the elect only; that is to say, in such as God had determined should become his Subjects. For those miraculous plagues of Egypt, had not for end, the conversation of Pharaoh.
Page 363.
The end of all the Miracles of Moses, of Prophets, of our Saviour, and of his Apostles was to adde men to the Church; but it was, because the end of their Miracles, was to adde to the Church (not all men, but such as should be saved; that is to say, such as God had elected.)
Page 364.
A Miracle, is a work of God, (besides his operation by the way of Naure, ordained in the Creation,) done for the making manifest to his elect, the mission of an extraordinary Minister for their salvation.
Page 364.
Words have no effect, but on those that understand them.
Page 365.
There is nothing how impossible soever to be done, that is impossible to bee beleeved. For two men conspiring, one to seem lame, the other to cure him with a charme, will deceive many: but many conspiring, one to seem lame, another so to cure him, and all the rest to bear witnesse; will deceive many more.
Pages 366-367.
A private man has always the liberty, (because thought is free,) to believe, or not beleeve in is heart, those ats that have been given out for Miracles, according as he shall see, what benefit can accrew by mens belief, to those that pretend, or countenance them, and thereby conjecture, whether they be Miracles, or Lies. But when it comes to confession of that faith, the Private Reason must submit to the Publique; that is to say, to Goss Lieutenant.
Page 368.
It is impossible a Common-wealth should stand, where any other than the Soveraign, hath a power of giving grater rewards than Life; and of inflicting greater punishments, than Death.
Page 369.
The comparison between the Eternall life which Adam lost, and our Saviour by his Victory over death hath recovered; holdeth also in this, that as Adam lost Eternall Life by his sin, and yet lived after it for a time; so the faithful Christian hath recovered Eternal Life by Christs passion, though he die a natural death, and remaine dead for a time; namely, till the Resurrection. For as Death is reckoned form the Condemnation of Adam, not from the Execution; so Life is reckoned from the Absolution, not from the Resurrection of them that are elected in Christ.
Page 371.
That the Soul of man is in its on nature eternall, and a living Creature independent on the body; or that any meer man is Immortall, otherwise than by the Resurrection in the last day … is a doctrine not apparent in Scripture.
Page 373.
It is manifest that Hell Fire, which is here expressed by Metaphor, form the reall Fire of Sodome, signifieth not any certain kind, or place of Torment; but is to be taken indefinitely for Destruction.
Page 376.
The Kingdome of God after the Resurrection, bee upon the Earth. … The Enemy, and his Kingdome must be on Earth also. … Consequently by Satan, is meant any Earthly Enemy of the Church.
Page 378.
To be saved from Sin, is to be saved form all the Evil, the Calamities that Sinne hath brought upon us.
Page 380.
The chief seat of Gods Kingdome (which is the Place, from whence the Salvation of us that were Gentiles, shall proceed) shall be Jerusalem
Page 382.
The dammage a man does to another, he may make amends for by restitution, or recompence, but sin cannot be taken away by recompence; for that were to make the liberty to sin, a thing vendible.
Page 385.
I define a Church to be, A company of men professing Christian Religion, united int eh person of one Soveraign; at whose command they ought to assemble, and without whose authority they ought not to assemble.
Page 387.
There is on Earth, no such universall Church, as all Christians are bound to obey; because there is no power on Earth, to which all other Common-wealths are subject.
Page 387.
A Church, such a one as is capable to Command, to Judge, Absolve, Condemn, or do any other act, is the same thing with a Civil Common-wealth, consisting of Christian men; and is called a Civill State, for that the subjects of it are Men; and a Church, for that the subjects thereof are Christians. Temporall and Spirituall Government, are but two words brought into the world, to make men see double, and mistake their Lawfull Soveraign.
Pages 387-388.
As none but Abraham in his family, so none but the Soveraign in a Christian Common-wealth, can take notice what is, or what is not the Word of God. For God spake onely to Abraham; and it was he onely, that was able to know what God said, and to interpret the same to his family: And therefore also, they that have the place of Abraham Common-wealth, are the onely Interpreters of what God hath spoken.
Page 390.
Whosoever in a Christian Common-wealth holdeth the place of Moses, is the sole Messenger of God, and Interpreter of his Commandments.
Page 393.
No Subject ought to pretend to Prophecy, or to the Spirit, in opposition to the doctrine established by him, whom God hath set in the place of Moses.
Page 394.
There was never doubt made, but that the High Priest till the time of Saul, had the Supreme Authority. Therefore the Civill and Ecclesiasticall Power were both joined together in one and the same person, the High Priest; and ought to bee so, in whosoever governeth by Divine Right; that is, by Authority immediate from God.
Page 395.
To reward every man according to his works, is to execute the Office of a King.
Page 402.
There are two parts of our Saviours Office during his aboard upon the Earth: One to Proclaim himself the Christ; and another by Teaching, and by working of Miracles, to perswade, and prepare men to live so, as to be worthy of the Immortality Beleevers were to enjoy.
Page 403.
There is nothing done, or taught by Christ, that tendeth to the diminution of the Civill Right of the Jewes, or of Caesar.
Page 404.
By eating at Christs table, is meant the eating of the Tree of Life; that is so say the enjoying of Immortality, in the Kingdome of the Son of Man. By which places, and many more, it is evident, that our Saviours Kingdome is to bee exercised by him in his humane nature.
Again, he is to be King then, no otherwise than as subordinate, or Vicegerent of God the Father, as Moses was in the wildernesse; and as the High Priests were before the reign of Saul: and as the Kings were after it.
Page 405.
The doctrine of the Trinity, as far as can be gathered directly from the Scripture, is in substance this; that God who is always One and the same, was the Person Represented by Moses; the Person Represented by his Son Incarnate; and the Person represented by the Apostles. As Represented by the Apostles, the Holy spirit by which they spake, is God; As Represented by his Son (that was God and Man), the Son is that God; As represented by Moses, and the High Priests, the Father, that is to say, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, is that God.
Page 411.
The Kingdome of Christ is not of this world: therefore neither can his Ministers (unlesse they be Kings,) require obedience in his name.
Page 412.
The work of Christs Ministers, is Evangelization; that is, a Proclamation of Christ, and a preparation for his second coming; as the Evangelization of John Baptist, was a preparation to his first coming.
Page 413.
The Office of Christs Ministers in this world, is to make men Beleeve, and have Faith in Christ.
Page 413.
The Ministers of Christ in this world, have no Power by that title, to Punish any man for not Beleeving, or for Contradicting what they say; they have I say no Power by that title of Christs Ministers, to Punish such: but if they have Soveraign Civill Power, by politick institutions, then they may indeed lawfully Punish any Contradiction to their laws whatsoever.
Page 413.
Christ hath not left to his Ministers in this world, unlesse they be also endued with Civill Authority, any authority to Command other men.
Page 414.
Beleef, and Unbeleef never follow mens Commands. Faith is a gift of God, which Man can neither give, nor take away by promise of rewards, or menaces of torture.
Page 414.
Whatsoever a Subject … is compelled to in obedience to his Soveraign, and doth it not in order to his won mind, but in order to the laws of his country, that action is not his, but his Soveraigns; nor is it he that in this case denyeth Christ before men, but his Governour, and the law of his countrey.
Page 415.
No man is a Witnesse to him that already beleeveth, and therefore needs no Witnesse; but to them that deny, or doubt, or have not heard it.
Page 417.
Teaching … and Preaching is the same thing.
Page 418.
Baptisme is the Sacrament of Allegeance, of them that are to be received into the Kingdome of God.
Page 419.
Publicans (which signifieth Farmers, and Receivers of the revenue of the Common-wealth) were so hated, and detested by the Jews that were to pay it, as that Publican and Sinner were taken amongst them for the same thing.
Page 422.
Without the Kingdome of Christ, all other Kingdomes after Judgment, are comprehended in the Kingdome of Satan.
Page 423.
The Power of Excommunication cannot be extended further than to the end for which the Apostles and Pastors of the Church have their Commission from our Saviour; which is not to rule by Command and Coaction, but by Teaching and Direction of men int eh way of Salvation in the world to come.
Page 427.
In all cases of the world, hee that pretendeth any proofe, maketh judge of his proofe him to whom he addresseth his speech.
Page 429.
Of these two Tables, the first containeth the law of Soveraignty … The second Table containeth the Duty of one man towards anther.
Page 431.
We may inferre, that the Scriptures of the Old Testament, which we have at this day, were not Canonicall, nor a Law unto the Jews, till the renovation of their Covenant with God at their return from the Captivity, and restauration of their Common-wealth under Esdras.
Page 434.
The Scripture of the New Testament is there only Law, where the lawfull Civill Power hath made it so.
Page 436.
Though God be the Soveraign of all the world, we are not bound to take for his Law, whatsoever is propounded by every man in his name; nor any thing contrary to the Civill Law, which God hath expressly commanded us to obey.
Page 438.
Christian Kings are still the Supreme Pastors of their people, and have power to ordain what Pastors they please, to teach the Church, that is, to teach the People committed to their charge.
Page 451.
Both State, and Church are the same men.
Page 458.
A Church, and a Commonwealth of Christian People, are the same thing.
Page 458.
If by Bishop of Rome, bee understood either the Monarch of the Church, or the Supreme Pastor of it; not Silvester, but Constantine (who was the first Christian Emperour) was that Bishop; and as Constsantine, so all other Christian Emperors were of Right supreme Bishops of the Roman Empire.
Page 462.
Christian Soveraignes are in their owne Dominions the supreme Pastors, and instituted thereto, by virtue of their being Baptized, though without other Imposition of Hands.
Page 466.
Soveraigns are supreme Teachers (in generall) by their Office; and therefore oblige themselves (by their Baptisme) to teach the Doctrine of Christ.
Page 466.
Seeing then God the Father sent not our Saviour to make Laws in this present world, wee may conclude from the Text, that neither did our Saviour send S. Peter to make Laws here, but to perswade men to expect his second coming with a stedfast faith; and in the mean time, if Subjects, to obey their Princes.
Page 469.
He which heareth his Soveraign being a Christian, heareth Christ; and hee that despiseth the Doctrine which his King being a Christian, authorizeth, despiseth the Doctrine of Christ.
Page 472.
Christian Kings have their Civill Power form God immediately.
Page 475.
All lawfull Power is of God, immediately in the Supreme Governour, and mediately in those that have Authority under him.
Page 475.
God accepteth not a forced, but a willing obedience.
Page 477.
The Jurisdiction of Bishops, is derived from the Civill Soveraign.
Page 477.
The large Jurisdiction of the Pope was given him by those that had it, that is, by the Emperours of Rome … It followeth, that all other Bishops have their Jurisdiction from the Soveraigns of the place wherein they exercise the same.
Page 477.
If the Priest … had his Jurisdiction immediately form God, then the King could not take it from him; for he could doe nothing contrary to Gods ordinance.
Page 478.
The Right of all Soveraigns, is derived originally from the consent of every one of those that are to bee governed; whether they that choose him, doe it for their common defence against an Enemy, as when they agree amongst themselves to appoint a Man, or an Assembly of men to protect them; or whether they doe it, to save their lives, by submission to a conquering enemy.
Page 480.
Though the Pope were Christs onely Vicar, yet he cannot exercise his government, till our Saviours second coming.
Page 482.
To every End, the Means are determined by Nature, or by God himself supernaturally: but the Power to make men use the Means, is in every nation resigned … to the Civill Soveraign.
Page 483.
Spirituall Common-wealth there is none in this world: for it is the same thing with the Kingdome of Christ; which he himselfe saith, is not of this world; but shall be in the next world, at the Resurrection, when they that have lived justly, and beleeved that he was the Christ, shall (though they died Naturall bodies) rise Spirituall bodies; and then it is, that our Saviour shall judge the world, and conquer his adversaries, and make a Spirituall Common-wealth. In the mean time, seeing there are no men on earth, whose bodies are Spirituall; there can be no Spritiuall Common-wealth amongst men that are yet in the flesh.
Page 484.
Haeresie is nothing else, but a private opinion, obstinately maintained, contrary to the opinion which the Publique Person (that is to say the representant of the Common-wealth) hath commanded to bee taught
Page 485.
Heretiques are none but private men, that stubbornly defend some Doctrine prohibited by their lawfull soveraigns.
Page 485.
Every Christian Prince, as I have formerly proved, is no lesse Supreme Pastor of his own Subjects than the Pope of his.
Page 486.
The most frequent praetext of Sedition, and Civill Warre, in Christian Common-wealths hath a long time proceeded form a difficulty, not yet sufficiently resolved, of obeying at once, both God, and Man, then when their Commandments are one contrary to the other.
Page 489.
If the command of the Civill Soveraign bee such, as that it may be obeyed, without the forfeiture of life Eternall; not to obey it is unjust
Page 489.
All that is Necessary to Salvation, is contained in two Vertues, Fatih in Christ, and Obedience to Laws.
Page 490.
Righteousnesse is but the will to give to every one his owne, that is to say, the will to obey the Laws.
Page 490.
If God should require perfect Innocence, there could no flesh be saved.
Page 491.
Our Saviour Christ hath not given us new Laws, but Counsell to observe those wee are subject to; that is to say, the Laws of Nature, and the Laws of our several Soveraigns. … The Laws of God therefore are none but the Laws of Nature, whereof the principall is, that we should not violate our Faith, that is, a commandement to obey our Civill Soveraigns, which wee constituted over us, by mutuall pact one with another.
Page 491.
The most ordinary immediate cause of our beleef, concerning any point of Christian Faith, Is, that wee believe the Bible to be the Word of God. But why wee believe the Bible to be the Word of God, is much disputed.
Page 492.
There is nothing in the Scripture, from which can ve inferred the Infallibility of the Church; much lesse, of any particular Church; and least of all, the Infallibility of any particular man.
Page 493.
He that holdeth this Foundation, Jesus is the Christ, holdeth Expressly all that hee seeth rightly deduced from it, and Implicitely all that is consequent thereunto, though he have not skill enough to discern the consequence. And therefore it holdeth still good, that the beleef of this one Article is sufficient faith to obtaine remission of sinnes to the Penitent, and consequently to bring them into the Kingdome of Heaven.
Page 500.
There can … be no contradiction between the Laws of God, and the Laws of a Christian common-wealth.
Page 503.
When the Civill Soveraign is an Infidel, every one of his own Subjects that resisteth him, sinneth against the Laws of God (for such as are the Laws of Nature).
Page 503.
The Darkest part of the Kingdom of Satan, is that which is without the Church of God; that is to say, amongst them that believe not in Jesus Christ.
Page 506.
Wee are therefore yet in the Dark.
Page 506.
We erre, not knowing the Scriptures.
Page 506.
The greatest, and main abuse of Scripture, and to which almost all the rest are either consequent, or subservient, is the wresting of it, to prove that the Kingdome of God, mentioned so often in the Scripture, is the present Church, or multitude of Christian men now living.
Page 507.
The Soule in Scripture, signifieth always, either the Life, or the Living Creature; and the Body and Soule jointly, the Body alive.
Page 515.
St. Paul, speaking of the Resurrection understandeth it onely of the resurrection to Life Eternall; and not the Resurrection to Punishment.
Page 524.
There are but three Worlds; one form the Creation to the Flood, which was destroyed by Eter, and is called in Scripture the Old World; another from the Flood, to the day of Judgement, which is the Present World, and shall gee destroyed by fire; and the third, which shall gee from the day of Judgement forward, everlasting, which is called the World to come.
Page 526.
God, that could give a life to a peece of clay, hath the same power to give life again to a dead man, and renew his inanimate, and rotten Carkasse, into a glorious, spirituall, and immortall Body.
Page 528.
To rise from Death to Life, is one thing; to rise from Purgatory to Life is another; as being a rising from Life to Life, from a Life in torments to a Life in joy.
Page 530.
To Honor, is to value highly the Power of any person … because there is nothing to be compared with God in Power; we Honor him not but dishonour him by any Value lesse than Infinite.
Page 541.
There can be no Image od a thing Infinite: for all the Images, and Phantasmes that are made by the Impression of things visible, are figured: but Figure is a quantity every way determined: And therefore there can bee no Image of God; nor of the Soule of Man; nor of Spirits; but onely of Bodies Visible.
Page 543.
Though our Saviour was a man, whom wee also beleeve to bee God Imortall, and the Son of God; yet this is no Idolatry; because wee build not that beleef upon our own fancy, or judgment, but upon the Word of God revealed in the Scriptures.
Page 546.
He that worshippeth in an Image, or any Creature, either the Matter thereof, or any Fancy of his own, which he thinketh to dwell in it; or bother together; or beleeveth that such things hear his Prayers, or see his Devotions, without Ears, or Eyes, committeth Idolatry: and he that counterfeiteth such Worship for rear of punishment, if he bee a man whose example hat power amongst his Brethren, committeth a sin: But he that worshippeth the Creator of the world before such an Image, or in such a place as he hath not made, or chosen of himself, but taken from the commandement of Gods Word, as the Jewes did in worshipping God before the Cherubins, and before the Brazen Serpent for a time, and in, or towards the Temple of Jerusalem, which was also but for a time, committeth not Idolatry
Pages 548-549.
It cannot be imagined, that the Religious Worship now in use, was brought into the Church, by misunderstanding of the Scripture. It resteth therefore, that it was left in it, by not destroying the Images themselves, in the conversion or the Gentiles that worshipped them.
Page 551.
The Canonizing of Saints, is another Relique of Gentilisme: It is neither a misunderstanding of Scripture, nor a new invention of the Roman Church, but a custome as ancient as the Common-wealth of Rome it self.
Page 552.
It is also from the Roman Heathen, that the Popes have received the name, and power of Pontifex Maximus.
Page 552.
Dancing is one kind of Worship.
Page 554.
By Philosophy, is understood the Knowledge acquired by Reasoning, form the Manner of the Generation of any thing, to the Properties; or f rom the Properties, to some possible Way of Generation of the same; to the end to bee able to produce, as far as matter, and humane force permit, such Effects, as humane life requireth.
Page 555.
Nothing is produced by Reasoning aright, but generall, eternall, and immutable Truth.
Page 555.
He that Reasoneth aright in words he understandeth, can never conclude an Error.
Page 556.
The Savages of America, are not without some good Morall Sentences; also they have a little Arithmetick, to adde, and divide in Numbers not too great; but they are not therefore Philosophers.
Page 556.
Leasure is the mother of Philosophy; and Common-wealth, the mother of Peace, and Leasure: Where first were great and flourishing Cities, there was first the study of Philosophy. The Gymnosophists of India, the Magi of Persia, and the Priests of Chaldaea and Egypt, are counted the most ancient Philosophers.
Page 556.
I beleeve that scarce any thing can e more absurdly said in natural Philosophy, than that which now is called Aristotles Metaphysiques; nor more repugnant to Government, than much of that hee hath said in his Politiques; nor more ignorantly, than a great part of his Ethiques.
Page 559.
That which is ow called an University, is a Joying together, and an Incorporation under one Government of many Publique Schools, in one and the same Town or City. In which, the principall schools were ordained for the three Professions, that is to say, of the Romane Religion, of the Romane Law, and of the Art of Medicine. And for the study of Philosophy it hath no otherwise place, then as a handmaid to the Romaine Religion.
Page 560.
The use of Words, is to register to our selves, and make manifest to others the Thoughts and Conceptions of our Minds.
Page 562.
Aristotle, and other Heathen Philosophers define Good, and Evill, by the Appetite of men; and well enough, as long as we consider them governed every one by his own Law: For in the condition of men that have no other Law but their own Appetites, there can be no generall Rule of Good, and Evil Actions. But in a Common-wealth this measure is false: Not the Appetite of Private men, but the Law, which is the Will and Appetite of the State is the measure.
Pages 568-569.
This is another Errour of Aristotles Politiques, that in a wel ordered Common-wealth, not Men should govern, but the Laws. … They induce men, as oft as they like not their governours, to adhaere to those that call them Tyrants, and to think it lawfull to raise warre against them: And yet they are many times cherished form the Pulpit, by the Clergy.
Page 571.
To force him to accuse himself of Opinions, when his Actions are not by Law forbidden, is against the Law of Nature; and especially in them, who teach, that a man shall bee damned to Eternall and estream torments, if he die in a false opinion concerning an Article of the Christian Faith.
Pages 571-572.
In the Power of making Laws, is comprehended also the Power of explaining them when there is need.
Page 572.
To deny these Functions to those, to whom the Civill Soveraigne hath not denyed them, is a taking away of a lawfull Liberty, which is contrary to the Doctrine of Civill Government.
Page 572.
The best men are the least suspicious of fraudulent purposes.
Page 574.
The Metaphysiques, Ethiques, and Politiques of Aristotle, the frivolous Distinctions, barbarous Terms, and obscure Language of the Schoolmen, taught in the Universities, (which heave bee all erected and regulated by the Popes Authority,) serve them to keep these Errors from being detected, and to make men mistake the Ignis fatuus of Vain Philosophy, for the Light of the Gospell.
Page 579.
As the Inventions of men are woven, so also are they ravelled out; the way is the same, but the order is inverted.
Page 580.
It is unreasonable in them, who teach there is such danger in every little Errour, to require of a man endued with Reason of his own, to follow the Reason of any other man, or of the most voices of many other men.
Pages 581-582.
The Papacy, is no other, than the Ghost of the deceased Romane Empire … so did the Papacy startup on a Sudden out of the Ruines of that Heathen Power.
Pages 582-583.
The Ecclesiastiques take from young men, the use of Reason, by certain Charms compounded of Metaphysiques, and Miracles, and Traditions, and Abused Scripture, whereby they are good for nothing else, but to execute what they command them.
Page 583.
The Operatories of the Clergy, are well enough known to be the Universities, that received their Discipline from Authority Pontificiall.
Page 584.
The Spirituall Power of the Pope (without the bounds of his own Civill Dominion) consisteth onely in the Fear that Seduced people stand in, of their Excommunications; upon hearing of false Miracles, false Traditions, and false Interpretations of the Scripture.
Page 584.
It is not the Romane Clergy onely, that pretends the Kingdome of God to be of this World, and thereby to have a Power therein, distinct form that of the Civill State.
Page 585.
I have known cleernesse of Judgment, and largenesse of Fancy; strength of Reason, and gracefull Elocution; a Courage for the Warre, and a Fear for the Laws, and all eminently in one man; and that was my most noble and honored friend Mr. Sidney Godolphin; who hating no man, nor hated of any, was unfortunately slain in the beginning of the late Civill warre in the Publique quarrel, by an undiscerened, and an undiscerning hand.
Page 588.
Every man is bound by Nature, as much as in him lieth, to protect in Warre, the Authority, by which he is himself protected in time of Peace. For he that pretendeth a Right of Nature to preserve his owne body, cannot pretend a Right of Nature to destroy him, by whose strength he is preserved.
Pages 588-589.
The point of time, wherein a man becomes subject to a Conquerour, is that point, wherein having liberty to submit to him, he consenteth, either by expresse words, or by other sufficient sign, to be his Subject.
Page 589.
A Contract lawfully made, cannot lawfully be broken.
Page 590.
Conquest, is not the Victory it self; but the Acquisition by Victory, of a Right, over the persons of men.
Page 590.
Conquest … is the Acquiring of the Right of Soveraignty by Victory. Which Right, is acquired, in the peoples Submission, by which they contract with the Victor, promising Obedience, for Life and Liberty.
Page 591.
All Truth of Doctrine dependeth either upon Reason, or upon Scripture.
Page 596.
Seeing the Universities are the Fountains of Civill, and Morall Doctrine, form when they find, use to sprinkle the same (both from the Pulpit, and in their Conversation) upon the People, there ought certainly to be great care taken, to have it pure, both from the Venime of Heathen Politicians, and form the incantations of Deceiving Spirits.
Page 597.